Melanotan 1

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Potential Benefits of Melanotan 1
What is Melanotan 1?
How Melanotan 1 Works
Chemical Structure of Melanotan 1
Research on Melanotan 1
Associated Side Effects of Melanotan 1
References

Potential Benefits of Melanotan 1

Treats various skin disorders [1-17]
Prevents heart disease [18-21]
Fights inflammation [22-29]
Lowers blood pressure [30]
Improves cognitive function [31-35]
Promotes recovery following a stroke [36]
Promotes fat loss [37-38]

What is Melanotan 1?

Melanotan 1, also known as afamelanotide, is a medication used for the treatment of light-related skin conditions and prevention of skin cancer. This peptide is also used for body tanning and can be given through nasal sprays and injections.

How Melanotan 1 Works?

Melanotan 1 primarily increases the process of melanin production known as melanogenesis. It does this by binding to the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1). This process reduces sun-damage to the skin exposed to ultraviolet rays and also creates beneficial effects on a broad range of skin-related illnesses.

Chemical Structure of Melanotan 1

Research on Melanotan 1

Treats various Skin Disorders

Evidence suggests that the ability of melanotan 1 to boost the production of the skin pigment called melanin is beneficial in the treatment of various skin conditions:

Results from several key Phase II and III clinical trials found that melanotan 1 can help treat erythropoietic protoporphyria, a painful skin condition caused by sensitivity to sunlight. [1-6]
In patients with generalized vitiligo (pale white skin patches), the administration of afamelanotide resulted in faster and deeper repigmentation. [7-8]
In patients with mild to moderate acne, melanotan 1 treatment reduced symptoms without adverse side effects. [9]
In patients suffering from polymorphic light eruption (skin rashes due to sun exposure), melanotan 1 treatment reduced skin sensitivity and other related symptoms. [10]
In patients with skin sensitivity caused by sunlight, afamelanotide enabled patients to spend up to seven times longer in direct sunlight without experiencing pain than patients who received placebo treatment. [11]
A study reported that afamelanotide can help treat pre-cancerous skin lesions of the head, forearms, and hands in patients who had an organ transplant. [12]
In patients with sunlight-induced skin sensitivity and itching, melanotan 1 significantly reduced the symptoms and increased the length of exposure to the sun. [13-15]
In patients, melanotan 1 therapy combined with UV-B light or sunlight was significantly effective for skin tanning in response to light. [16]
In Caucasian individuals with MC1R variant alleles, melanotan 1 administration effectively increased the melanin content of the skin, which helps protect the epidermis from damage caused by UV light. [17]

Prevents Heart Disease

Melanotan 1 has also been found to regulate important mechanisms involved in heart protection:

In mice with atherosclerosis (plaque formation within the heart arteries), melanotan 1 prevented the formation of plaques and heart dysfunction. [18]
A mouse study also found that melanotan 1 induced relaxation of the heart arteries which in turn improved blood circulation. [19]
A study reported that melanotan 1 can help protect against cardiovascular disease by increasing the levels of nitric oxide, a substance that relaxes the heart arteries to improve blood circulation. [20]
In rats undergoing a heart attack, Melanotan 1 administration in conjunction with epinephrine during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) helped restore baseline arterial pressure and heart rate. [21]

Fights Inflammation

Studies suggest that melanotan 1 has anti-inflammatory properties that can help ward off a broad range of diseases:

A study reported that melanotan 1 induces antioxidant activities, promotes DNA repair, and modulates the inflammatory process. [22]
In a mouse model of skin inflammation, melanotan 1 inhibited the production of inflammatory substances such as TNF-α and IL-6. [23]
In a mouse model of nerve pain injury, the lack of melanotan 1 was associated with increased inflammatory pain. [24-25]
In a rat model of bowel inflammation, melanotan 1 reversed intestinal inflammation. [26-27]
A study found that melanotan 1 has anti-inflammatory properties that are similar to dexamethasone. [28]
In mouse models of uveitis, an inflammatory disorder of the eye that can lead to pain and vision loss, systemic and local administration of Melanotan 1 were effective in suppressing uveitis with a similar magnitude to that of dexamethasone. [29]

Lowers Blood Pressure

Melanotan 1 has also been shown to protect against elevated blood pressure:

In hypertensive mice, melanotan 1 provided protective effects against high blood pressure without affecting other mice with normal blood pressure. [30]

Improves Cognitive Function

Animal and cell studies show that melanotan 1 can help protect against cognitive dysfunction related to brain disorders:

In mouse models of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the administration of a very small dose of melanotan 1 resulted in favorable effects against cognitive decline. [31]
In mice, once daily administration of nanomolar doses of melanotan 1 for 50 days resulted in a significant reduction of AD-related biomarkers and led to cognitive recovery by boosting neurogenesis (nerve cell formation) through the stimulation of the MC4 receptor. [32]
In mice, once daily administration of melanotan 1 significantly reduced all AD-related biomarkers which in turn prevented the progression of the disease. [33]
In rats, melanotan 1 was shown to improve astrocyte functioning, the cells that protect neurons and provide them with nutrition, by increasing levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). [34]
In mice and human neurons, melanotan 1 exerted long-lasting neuroprotective effects. [35]

Promotes Recovery following a Stroke

In animal models, melatonan1 has been shown to produce beneficial effects following a stroke:

In gerbil models of stroke, the administration of melatonan1 and 2 after a stroke reduced brain damage and improved recovery of learning and memory. [36]

Promotes Fat Loss

Evidence found that melanotan 1 has fat-burning properties:

In mice, melanotan 1 was shown to promote fat burning through the stimulation of MC5R. [37-38]

Associated Side Effects of Melanotan 1

Melanotan 1 side effects are very uncommon. There have been some side effects associated with the use of this drug wherein the patient had one of the issues listed below at some point while being on melanotan 1. However, these side effects weren’t confirmed to be associated with the treatment and could have been a coincidence and not related to the use of melanotan 1. Despite this, it was listed as a side effect associated with melanotan 1 even though these associated side effects are very uncommon.

Side effects associated with melanotan 1 may include the following:

Facial flushing
Gastrointestinal upset
Increased moles and freckles
Loss of appetite
Nausea
Tiredness
Unwanted tanning
Vomiting

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Reference

Lane AM, McKay JT, Bonkovsky HL. Advances in the management of erythropoietic protoporphyria – role of afamelanotide. Appl Clin Genet. 2016;9:179-189. Published 2016 Dec 12. doi:10.2147/TACG.S122030.

Advances in the management of erythropoietic protoporphyria – role of afamelanotide

The article “Advances in the management of erythropoietic protoporphyria – role of afamelanotide” by Lane AM, McKay JT, Bonkovsky HL, published in the Application of Clinical Genetics in December 2016, focuses on the inherited cutaneous porphyrias, specifically erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP) and X-linked protoporphyria (XLPP). These conditions are characterized by acute non-blistering photosensitivity, intolerance to sunlight, and a significantly reduced quality of life. The paper highlights the use of afamelanotide, a synthetic analog of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, which has shown promise in increasing skin pigmentation, thereby increasing melanin production in melanocytes. This leads to an improved tolerance to sunlight in individuals with EPP and XLPP, offering a significant advance in the management of these conditions. The review provides a comprehensive overview of the pathophysiology of EPP, the challenges in managing this condition, and the clinical efficacy and safety of afamelanotide as a therapeutic option

Read the full article https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28003770/
Available from https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/search?query=2007-000636-13.

https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/search?query=2007-000636-13.

The clinical trial registered under EudraCT Number 2007-000636-13, sponsored by Clinuvel Pharmaceuticals Limited, was a Phase III, multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled study. It aimed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of subcutaneous bioresorbable CUV1647 implants in patients with Erythropoietic Protoporphyria (EPP). This condition is a rare, genetic disorder characterized by sensitivity to sunlight, leading to severe pain. The trial protocols were completed in several countries, including the UK, Sweden, Italy, France, Germany, and the Netherlands.

Read the full article https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/search?query=2007-000636-13
Kim ES, Garnock-Jones KP. Afamelanotide: A Review in Erythropoietic Protoporphyria. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2016 Apr;17(2):179-85. doi: 10.1007/s40257-016-0184-6. PMID: 26979527.

A Review in Erythropoietic Protoporphyria. Am J Clin Dermatol

The review article “Afamelanotide: A Review in Erythropoietic Protoporphyria” by Kim ES and Garnock-Jones KP, published in the American Journal of Clinical Dermatology in April 2016, focuses on the use of afamelanotide, a synthetic α-melanocyte stimulating hormone analogue, in the treatment of erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP). Afamelanotide, marketed under the brand name SCENESSE®, is the first-in-class melanocortin-1 receptor agonist approved in the EU for the prevention of phototoxicity in adults with EPP. The condition EPP is characterized by acute phototoxicity, where patients experience severe burning pain after light exposure, significantly reducing their quality of life. The review outlines the mechanism of action of afamelanotide, its clinical efficacy, safety profile, and its role in managing the phototoxic reactions associated with EPP, highlighting its importance as a therapeutic advancement for patients suffering from this condition

Read the full article https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26979527/
Minder EI. Afamelanotide, an agonistic analog of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, in dermal phototoxicity of erythropoietic protoporphyria. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2010 Dec;19(12):1591-602. doi: 10.1517/13543784.2010.535515. Epub 2010 Nov 13. PMID: 21073357.

Afamelanotide, an agonistic analog of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, in dermal phototoxicity of erythropoietic protoporphyria

The article by Minder EI, “Afamelanotide, an agonistic analog of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, in dermal phototoxicity of erythropoietic protoporphyria,” published in Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs in December 2010, discusses the promising early results of afamelanotide trials for the treatment of erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP). Afamelanotide acts as an agonistic analog of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, aiming to alleviate the dermal phototoxicity associated with EPP, a condition characterized by severe sensitivity to sunlight resulting in painful skin reactions. The initial trials of afamelanotide have shown a favorable risk-safety profile, indicating its potential as a significant therapeutic advancement for individuals suffering from EPP

Read the full article https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21073357/
Biolcati G, Marchesini E, Sorge F, Barbieri L, Schneider-Yin X, Minder EI. Long-term observational study of afamelanotide in 115 patients with erythropoietic protoporphyria. Br J Dermatol. 2015 Jun;172(6):1601-1612. doi: 10.1111/bjd.13598. Epub 2015 Apr 30. PMID: 25494545.

Long-term observational study of afamelanotide in 115 patients with erythropoietic protoporphyria

The long-term observational study by Biolcati G, Marchesini E, Sorge F, Barbieri L, Schneider-Yin X, Minder EI, published in the British Journal of Dermatology in June 2015, provides extensive data on the effectiveness of afamelanotide in patients with erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP). The study encompassed 115 EPP patients and showed that afamelanotide significantly improved the patients’ tolerance to light exposure, enhancing their quality of life. The majority of participants reported positive outcomes, with only three patients stating that the treatment did not meet their expectations for symptom improvement. A notable portion of the study population discontinued treatment due to reasons unrelated to the drug’s efficacy, such as pregnancy or financial constraints. This study underscores afamelanotide’s potential as a beneficial treatment option for individuals suffering from EPP, highlighting its capacity to mitigate the phototoxic reactions caused by the condition

Read the full article https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25494545/
Wensink D, Wagenmakers MAEM, Barman-Aksözen J, Friesema ECH, Wilson JHP, van Rosmalen J, Langendonk JG. Association of Afamelanotide With Improved Outcomes in Patients With Erythropoietic Protoporphyria in Clinical Practice. JAMA Dermatol. 2020 May 1;156(5):570-575. doi: 10.1001/jamadermatol.2020.0352. PMID: 32186677; PMCID: PMC7081144.

Association of Afamelanotide With Improved Outcomes in Patients With Erythropoietic Protoporphyria in Clinical Practice

The study “Association of Afamelanotide With Improved Outcomes in Patients With Erythropoietic Protoporphyria in Clinical Practice,” published in JAMA Dermatology in May 2020 by Wensink D, Wagenmakers MAEM, Barman-Aksözen J, Friesema ECH, Wilson JHP, van Rosmalen J, Langendonk JG, is a single-center, prospective postauthorization safety and efficacy cohort study. It was conducted to assess the impact of afamelanotide in patients with Erythropoietic Protoporphyria (EPP) in a real-world clinical setting. The study included a total of 117 patients with EPP, with an analysis focusing on the time spent outside during treatment, the number of phototoxic reactions, disease-specific quality of life, usage of protective clothing, and adverse events. The results indicated significant improvements in clinical outcomes for patients treated with afamelanotide, showcasing an enhanced ability to spend time outdoors with fewer phototoxic reactions and a better overall quality of life. This study underscores the value of afamelanotide as an effective treatment option for managing the symptoms of EPP in clinical practice, demonstrating a good safety profile and marked improvements in patient outcomes

Read the full article https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/article-abstract/2762869
Grimes PE, Hamzavi I, Lebwohl M, Ortonne JP, Lim HW. The efficacy of afamelanotide and narrowband UV-B phototherapy for repigmentation of vitiligo. JAMA Dermatol. 2013 Jan;149(1):68-73. doi: 10.1001/2013.jamadermatol.386. PMID: 23407924.

The efficacy of afamelanotide and narrowband UV-B phototherapy for repigmentation of vitiligo

The study “The efficacy of afamelanotide and narrowband UV-B phototherapy for repigmentation of vitiligo,” published in JAMA Dermatology in January 2013 by Grimes PE, Hamzavi I, Lebwohl M, Ortonne JP, Lim HW, investigates the combined use of afamelanotide, a synthetic analogue of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, with narrowband UV-B (NB-UV-B) phototherapy in treating vitiligo. The preliminary results from this study, focusing on four patients with generalized vitiligo, demonstrated that the combination therapy led to significant repigmentation. This suggests that afamelanotide, alongside NB-UV-B phototherapy, could be a potent treatment strategy for inducing repigmentation in vitiligo patients, offering a new avenue for managing this challenging skin condition

Read the full article https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23407924/
Available from https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01382589.

A Phase III, Multi-Center, Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study of the Efficacy and Safety of Afamelanotide in Patients With Erythropoietic Protoporphyria (EPP).

The clinical trial registered as NCT01382589 on ClinicalTrials.gov is a study titled “A Phase III, Multi-Center, Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study of the Efficacy and Safety of Afamelanotide in Patients With Erythropoietic Protoporphyria (EPP).” This study aims to evaluate the efficacy and safety of afamelanotide in reducing pain and discomfort associated with light exposure in patients with EPP.

Read the full article https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01382589
Available from https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/search?query=2009-018024-15.
Available from https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/search?query=2009-017359-92.
Available from https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/search?query=2009-011018-51.
Available from https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/search?query=2007-007015-89.
Available from https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/search?query=2008-002446-39.
Available from https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/search?query=2007-001068-55.
Minder EI, Barman-Aksoezen J, Schneider-Yin X. Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Afamelanotide and its Clinical Use in Treating Dermatologic Disorders. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2017 Aug;56(8):815-823. doi: 10.1007/s40262-016-0501-5. PMID: 28063031.

Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Afamelanotide and its Clinical Use in Treating Dermatologic Disorders

The review by Minder EI, Barman-Aksoezen J, Schneider-Yin X, titled “Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Afamelanotide and its Clinical Use in Treating Dermatologic Disorders,” published in Clinical Pharmacokinetics in August 2017, offers an in-depth analysis of afamelanotide. This synthetic analogue of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) has been extensively studied for its effects on skin pigmentation, particularly its application in treating dermatologic conditions like erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP) and vitiligo. The review covers the drug’s pharmacokinetic properties, including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, as well as its pharmacodynamic aspects, such as mechanism of action and therapeutic effects. Additionally, the clinical applications of afamelanotide, its efficacy in various dermatologic conditions, and its safety profile are discussed, highlighting its significance in dermatology

Read the full article https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40262-016-0501-5
Available from https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/fullarticle/480676.
Fitzgerald LM, Fryer JL, Dwyer T, Humphrey SM. Effect of MELANOTAN, [Nle(4), D-Phe(7)]-alpha-MSH, on melanin synthesis in humans with MC1R variant alleles. Peptides. 2006 Feb;27(2):388-94. doi: 10.1016/j.peptides.2004.12.038. Epub 2005 Nov 15. PMID: 16293341.

Effect of MELANOTAN®,[Nle4, D-Phe7]-α-MSH, on melanin synthesis in humans with MC1R variant alleles

The study “Effect of MELANOTAN, [Nle(4), D-Phe(7)]-alpha-MSH, on melanin synthesis in humans with MC1R variant alleles” by Fitzgerald LM, Fryer JL, Dwyer T, Humphrey SM, published in Peptides in February 2006, examines the effects of Melanotan (NDP-MSH), a synthetic analogue of α-MSH, on melanin production in individuals with different MC1R genotypes. MC1R variant alleles are known to influence skin pigmentation and susceptibility to UV damage. The study involved administering Melanotan to 77 Caucasian participants to assess its impact on eumelanin content in the skin, particularly in those with variant MC1R genotypes which could potentially decrease Melanotan binding efficacy. The findings suggest that Melanotan binds the MC1 receptor, significantly increasing the eumelanin content of human skin cells, indicating its potential for enhancing skin pigmentation and possibly providing protective effects against UV-related skin damage in individuals with certain MC1R variant alleles.

Read the full article https://thebiogrid.org/181919/publication/effect-of-melanotan-nle4-d-phe7-alpha-msh-on-melanin-synthesis-in-humans-with-mc1r-variant-alleles.html
Rinne P, Silvola JM, Hellberg S, Ståhle M, Liljenbäck H, Salomäki H, Koskinen E, Nuutinen S, Saukko P, Knuuti J, Saraste A, Roivainen A, Savontaus E. Pharmacological activation of the melanocortin system limits plaque inflammation and ameliorates vascular dysfunction in atherosclerotic mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2014 Jul;34(7):1346-54. doi: 10.1161/ATVBAHA.113.302963. Epub 2014 May 1. PMID: 24790139.

Pharmacological activation of the melanocortin system limits plaque inflammation and ameliorates vascular dysfunction in atherosclerotic mice

The study by Rinne P, Silvola JM, Hellberg S, Ståhle M, Liljenbäck H, Salomäki H, Koskinen E, Nuutinen S, Saukko P, Knuuti J, Saraste A, Roivainen A, Savontaus E, titled “Pharmacological activation of the melanocortin system limits plaque inflammation and ameliorates vascular dysfunction in atherosclerotic mice,” published in Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology in July 2014, investigates the therapeutic potential of the melanocortin system in atherosclerosis. This study demonstrates that pharmacological activation of the melanocortin system can significantly limit plaque inflammation and improve vascular endothelial function in atherosclerotic mice. These findings suggest that targeting the melanocortin system may offer a novel approach to treating atherosclerosis by reducing inflammation and enhancing vascular function

Read the full article https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Pharmacological-Activation-of-the-Melanocortin-and-Rinne-Silvola/198c6b5838f2656d22a84f75cddede210b6230ab
Rinne P, Nordlund W, Heinonen I, Penttinen AM, Saraste A, Ruohonen ST, Mäkelä S, Vähätalo L, Kaipio K, Cai M, Hruby VJ, Ruohonen S, Savontaus E. α-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone regulates vascular NO availability and protects against endothelial dysfunction. Cardiovasc Res. 2013 Feb 1;97(2):360-8. doi: 10.1093/cvr/cvs335. Epub 2012 Nov 5. PMID: 23131503; PMCID: PMC3543993.

α-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone regulates vascular NO availability and protects against endothelial dysfunction

The study “α-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone regulates vascular NO availability and protects against endothelial dysfunction,” conducted by Rinne P, Nordlund W, Heinonen I, Penttinen AM, Saraste A, Ruohonen ST, Mäkelä S, Vähätalo L, Kaipio K, Cai M, Hruby VJ, Ruohonen S, Savontaus E, and published in Cardiovascular Research in February 2013, highlights the significant role of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) in vascular health. This research demonstrates that α-MSH can regulate the availability of nitric oxide (NO) in the vascular system, which is crucial for maintaining endothelial function and preventing dysfunction. The findings suggest that pharmacological activation of the melanocortin system through α-MSH or its analogues could offer a novel therapeutic approach to safeguard against endothelial dysfunction, a key factor in the development of cardiovascular diseases

Read the full article https://experts.arizona.edu/en/publications/%CE%B1-melanocyte-stimulating-hormone-regulates-vascular-no-availabili
Weng WT, Wu CS, Wang FS, et al. α-Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone Attenuates Neovascularization by Inducing Nitric Oxide Deficiency via MC-Rs/PKA/NF-κB Signaling. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19(12):3823. Published 2018 Nov 30. doi:10.3390/ijms19123823.

α-Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone Attenuates Neovascularization by Inducing Nitric Oxide Deficiency via MC-Rs/PKA/NF-κB Signaling. Int J Mol Sci

The study “α-Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone Attenuates Neovascularization by Inducing Nitric Oxide Deficiency via MC-Rs/PKA/NF-κB Signaling,” published in the International Journal of Molecular Sciences in November 2018 by Weng WT, Wu CS, Wang FS, et al., explores the role of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) in inhibiting neovascularization. The research demonstrates that α-MSH can attenuate the formation of new blood vessels by inducing a deficiency in nitric oxide (NO) through the MC-Rs/PKA/NF-κB signaling pathway. This discovery suggests a potential mechanism by which α-MSH could be used to control pathological angiogenesis, which is a critical process in various diseases including cancer, diabetic retinopathy, and age-related macular degeneration.

Read the full article https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30513637/
Ottani A, Neri L, Canalini F, Calevro A, Rossi R, Cappelli G, Ballestri M, Giuliani D, Guarini S. Protective effects of the melanocortin analog NDP-α-MSH in rats undergoing cardiac arrest. Eur J Pharmacol. 2014 Dec 15;745:108-16. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.10.022. Epub 2014 Oct 22. PMID: 25446929.

Protective effects of the melanocortin analog NDP-α-MSH in rats undergoing cardiac arrest

The study “Protective effects of the melanocortin analog NDP-α-MSH in rats undergoing cardiac arrest,” authored by Ottani A, Neri L, Canalini F, Calevro A, Rossi R, Cappelli G, Ballestri M, Giuliani D, Guarini S, and published in the European Journal of Pharmacology in December 2014, investigates the protective effects of NDP-α-MSH, a melanocortin analog, in a rat model of cardiac arrest. This research demonstrates that NDP-α-MSH can provide significant protection against the deleterious effects of cardiac arrest and resuscitation, potentially through its anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties. The findings suggest that melanocortin receptors play a critical role in mediating these protective effects, offering insights into new therapeutic strategies for improving outcomes after cardiac arrest.

Read the full article https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25446929/
Minder EI, Barman-Aksoezen J, Schneider-Yin X. Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Afamelanotide and its Clinical Use in Treating Dermatologic Disorders. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2017 Aug;56(8):815-823. doi: 10.1007/s40262-016-0501-5. PMID: 28063031.

Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Afamelanotide and its Clinical Use in Treating Dermatologic Disorders

The review article by Minder EI, Barman-Aksoezen J, Schneider-Yin X, titled “Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Afamelanotide and its Clinical Use in Treating Dermatologic Disorders,” published in Clinical Pharmacokinetics in August 2017, extensively discusses afamelanotide. Afamelanotide is a synthetic analogue of the naturally occurring α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH). This review provides a comprehensive overview of the pharmacokinetics (how the drug is absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted in the body) and pharmacodynamics (the effects of the drug and its mechanism of action) of afamelanotide. It also covers the clinical utility of afamelanotide in managing various dermatologic conditions, highlighting its effectiveness, safety profile, and the potential benefits it offers to patients with conditions such as erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP), a rare metabolic disorder that causes severe photosensitivity, and other light-related dermatoses. The article underscores the significance of afamelanotide in dermatology, providing insights into its role in enhancing patients’ quality of life by mitigating the symptoms associated with these disorders.

Read the full article https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40262-016-0501-5
Chen W, Li J, Qu H, Song Z, Yang Z, Huo J, Jiang H, Huang Q, Huo M, Liu B, Zhang Q. The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) inhibits the inflammatory response in Raw 264.7 cells and atopic dermatitis (AD) mouse model. Mol Biol Rep. 2013 Feb;40(2):1987-96. doi: 10.1007/s11033-012-2256-x. Epub 2012 Oct 23. PMID: 23090482.

The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) inhibits the inflammatory response in Raw 264.7 cells and atopic dermatitis (AD) mouse model

The study by Chen W et al., published in Molecular Biology Reports in February 2013, explores the anti-inflammatory effects of the Melanocortin 1 Receptor (MC1R) on Raw 264.7 macrophage cells and an atopic dermatitis (AD) mouse model, revealing MC1R’s significant role in reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine production in vitro and diminishing skin inflammation in vivo. By demonstrating that MC1R activation leads to improved skin lesions and decreased inflammatory markers in AD mice, the research suggests MC1R as a pivotal anti-inflammatory modulator with potential therapeutic applications in treating inflammatory skin disorders, including atopic dermatitis. This underscores the therapeutic promise of targeting MC1R signaling pathways in the development of treatments for such conditions.

Read the full article https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11033-012-2256-x
Delaney A, Keighren M, Fleetwood-Walker SM, Jackson IJ. Involvement of the melanocortin-1 receptor in acute pain and pain of inflammatory but not neuropathic origin. PLoS One. 2010 Sep 13;5(9):e12498. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012498. PMID: 20856883; PMCID: PMC2938350.

Involvement of the melanocortin-1 receptor in acute pain and pain of inflammatory but not neuropathic origin

The study by Delaney A, Keighren M, Fleetwood-Walker SM, Jackson IJ, published in PLoS One in September 2010, investigates the role of the melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) in different types of pain, including acute, inflammatory, and neuropathic pain. The findings suggest that MC1R is significantly involved in mediating acute and inflammatory pain responses, but not neuropathic pain. This distinction underscores the receptor’s selective involvement in pain mechanisms, indicating that MC1R could be a targeted therapeutic intervention for acute and inflammatory pain conditions. The research provides valuable insights into the pain modulation properties of MC1R, highlighting its potential as a novel drug target for managing specific pain types without affecting neuropathic pain pathways.

Read the full article https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0012498
Delaney A, Keighren M, Fleetwood-Walker SM, Jackson IJ. Involvement of the melanocortin-1 receptor in acute pain and pain of inflammatory but not neuropathic origin. PLoS One. 2010;5(9):e12498. Published 2010 Sep 13. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012498.

Involvement of the melanocortin-1 receptor in acute pain and pain of inflammatory but not neuropathic origin

The study by Delaney A, Keighren M, Fleetwood-Walker SM, and Jackson IJ, published in PLoS One in September 2010, examines the role of the melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) in modulating different types of pain, including acute, inflammatory, and neuropathic pain. The research findings reveal that MC1R plays a significant role in the modulation of acute and inflammatory pain but does not appear to be involved in the modulation of neuropathic pain. This differential involvement suggests the potential for targeting MC1R in the development of new pain management strategies specifically aimed at acute and inflammatory pain conditions, offering a promising direction for therapeutic interventions that could spare neuropathic pain pathways, thus providing more targeted pain relief options.

Read the full article https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0012498
Spana C, Taylor AW, Yee DG, Makhlina M, Yang W, Dodd J. Probing the Role of Melanocortin Type 1 Receptor Agonists in Diverse Immunological Diseases. Front Pharmacol. 2019 Jan 14;9:1535. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2018.01535. PMID: 30692924; PMCID: PMC6339910.

Probing the role of melanocortin type 1 receptor agonists in diverse immunological diseases

The research article by Spana C, Taylor AW, Yee DG, Makhlina M, Yang W, Dodd J, published in Frontiers in Pharmacology in January 2019, delves into the therapeutic potential of melanocortin type 1 receptor (MC1R) agonists across a variety of immunological diseases. This comprehensive study investigates how activating MC1R can modulate immune responses, suggesting a beneficial role in treating conditions characterized by inflammation and autoimmune reactions. The authors explore the mechanism through which MC1R agonists exert their effects, highlighting the receptor’s involvement in reducing inflammation and potentially mitigating the severity of diseases such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and psoriasis. The study underscores the importance of MC1R in immune regulation and positions MC1R agonists as promising candidates for the development of novel treatments aimed at a broad spectrum of immunological disorders, emphasizing the need for further research to fully understand their therapeutic potential and applicability.

Read the full article https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphar.2018.01535/full
Maaser C, Kannengiesser K, Specht C, Lügering A, Brzoska T, Luger TA, Domschke W, Kucharzik T. Crucial role of the melanocortin receptor MC1R in experimental colitis. Gut. 2006 Oct;55(10):1415-22. doi: 10.1136/gut.2005.083634. Epub 2006 Mar 16. PMID: 16543288; PMCID: PMC1856418.

Crucial role of the melanocortin receptor MC1R in experimental colitis

The study by Maaser C, Kannengiesser K, Specht C, Lügering A, Brzoska T, Luger TA, Domschke W, Kucharzik T, published in Gut in October 2006, investigates the role of the melanocortin receptor MC1R in the context of experimental colitis. This research uncovers the critical involvement of MC1R in modulating inflammatory responses within the gastrointestinal tract, particularly in a model of colitis. The findings demonstrate that activation of MC1R significantly reduces the severity of colitis symptoms, highlighting its protective effects against intestinal inflammation. By delineating the anti-inflammatory and protective roles of MC1R in colitis, this study provides valuable insights into the potential of targeting MC1R for therapeutic interventions in inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. The research underscores the importance of MC1R in immune regulation within the gut and suggests a promising avenue for developing new treatments aimed at alleviating IBD symptoms through modulation of MC1R activity.

Read the full article https://gut.bmj.com/content/gutjnl/early/2006/03/16/gut.2005.083634.full.pdf
Skottner A, Post C, Ocklind A, Seifert E, Liutkevicius E, Meskys R, Pilinkiene A, Biziuleviciene G, Lundstedt T. Anti-inflammatory potential of melanocortin receptor-directed drugs. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003 Jun;994:84-9. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb03165.x. PMID: 12851301.

Anti-inflammatory potential of melanocortin receptor-directed drugs. Ann N Y Acad Sci

The study by Skottner A, Post C, Ocklind A, Seifert E, Liutkevicius E, Meskys R, Pilinkiene A, Biziuleviciene G, Lundstedt T, published in the Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences in June 2003, explores the anti-inflammatory potential of drugs directed at melanocortin receptors. This research highlights the therapeutic promise of melanocortin receptor agonists in modulating inflammatory responses across various conditions. By investigating the effects of these drugs in different models of inflammation, the study provides evidence for the broad anti-inflammatory capabilities of melanocortin receptor-directed treatments. The findings suggest that targeting the melanocortin system can offer a novel and effective approach to treating inflammatory diseases, supporting the development of melanocortin receptor agonists as potential anti-inflammatory agents. This work underscores the importance of melanocortin receptors in immune regulation and opens up new avenues for the treatment of inflammation-related disorders.

Read the full article https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb03165.x
Edling AE, Gomes D, Weeden T, Dzuris J, Stefano J, Pan C, Williams J, Kaplan J, Perricone MA. Immunosuppressive activity of a novel peptide analog of α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH) in experimental autoimmune uveitis. J Neuroimmunol. 2011 Jul;236(1-2):1-9. doi: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2011.04.015. PMID: 21640392.

Immunosuppressive activity of a novel peptide analog of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH) in experimental autoimmune uveitis

The study by Edling AE, Gomes D, Weeden T, Dzuris J, Stefano J, Pan C, Williams J, Kaplan J, Perricone MA, published in the Journal of Neuroimmunology in July 2011, investigates the immunosuppressive effects of a novel peptide analog of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) in the context of experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU). EAU is a model for human autoimmune uveitis, a form of eye inflammation that can lead to severe visual impairment. This research demonstrates that the α-MSH analog possesses significant immunosuppressive properties, effectively reducing the severity of uveitis in the experimental model. The study provides evidence that this novel α-MSH analog can modulate immune responses, suggesting its potential as a therapeutic agent for treating autoimmune uveitis and possibly other autoimmune disorders. The findings underscore the therapeutic promise of peptides derived from α-MSH in managing autoimmune diseases by leveraging their immunomodulatory capabilities.

Read the full article https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165572811001366
Rinne P, Penttinen AM, Nordlund W, Ahotupa M, Savontaus E. α-MSH analogue attenuates blood pressure elevation in DOCA-salt hypertensive mice. PLoS One. 2013 Aug 16;8(8):e72857. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0072857. PMID: 23977363; PMCID: PMC3745458.

α-MSH analogue attenuates blood pressure elevation in DOCA-salt hypertensive mice

The study by Rinne P, Penttinen AM, Nordlund W, Ahotupa M, Savontaus E, published in PLoS One in August 2013, examines the effects of an α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) analogue on blood pressure in deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA)-salt hypertensive mice. This model is used to study hypertension, a condition characterized by persistently high blood pressure. The research findings indicate that the α-MSH analogue significantly attenuates the elevation of blood pressure in these hypertensive mice. The study highlights the potential of α-MSH analogues as therapeutic agents for managing hypertension, showcasing their ability to modulate cardiovascular function positively. By demonstrating the α-MSH analogue’s capacity to lower blood pressure in a well-established model of hypertension, this research contributes to the understanding of how melanocortin systems can be targeted to treat cardiovascular diseases, suggesting a promising avenue for future therapeutic development.

Read the full article https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0072857
Giuliani D, Galantucci M, Neri L, Canalini F, Calevro A, Bitto A, Ottani A, Vandini E, Sena P, Sandrini M, Squadrito F, Zaffe D, Guarini S. Melanocortins protect against brain damage and counteract cognitive decline in a transgenic mouse model of moderate Alzheimer׳s disease. Eur J Pharmacol. 2014 Oct 5;740:144-50. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.06.063. Epub 2014 Jul 15. PMID: 25034807.

Melanocortins protect against brain damage and counteract cognitive decline in a transgenic mouse model of moderate Alzheimer׳s disease

The study by Giuliani D, Galantucci M, Neri L, Canalini F, Calevro A, Bitto A, Ottani A, Vandini E, Sena P, Sandrini M, Squadrito F, Zaffe D, Guarini S, published in the European Journal of Pharmacology in October 2014, explores the neuroprotective effects of melanocortins in a transgenic mouse model of moderate Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The research demonstrates that treatment with melanocortins significantly reduces brain damage and counters cognitive decline in this model, suggesting a potential therapeutic role for melanocortin peptides in managing AD. By showing that melanocortins can mitigate the pathological features and cognitive deficits characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease, the study provides promising evidence for the development of melanocortin-based treatments aimed at protecting against neurodegeneration and preserving cognitive function in patients with AD. This research underscores the therapeutic potential of targeting the melanocortin system in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s, offering hope for new strategies to combat the progression of cognitive decline.

Read the full article https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014299914005329
Giuliani D, Neri L, Canalini F, Calevro A, Ottani A, Vandini E, Sena P, Zaffe D, Guarini S. NDP-α-MSH induces intense neurogenesis and cognitive recovery in Alzheimer transgenic mice through activation of melanocortin MC4 receptors. Mol Cell Neurosci. 2015 Jul;67:13-21. doi: 10.1016/j.mcn.2015.05.004. Epub 2015 May 21. PMID: 26003413.

NDP-α-MSH induces intense neurogenesis and cognitive recovery in Alzheimer transgenic mice through activation of melanocortin MC4 receptors

The study by Giuliani D, Neri L, Canalini F, Calevro A, Ottani A, Vandini E, Sena P, Zaffe D, Guarini S, published in Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience in July 2015, focuses on the therapeutic effects of NDP-α-MSH, an analog of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) transgenic mice. The research found that NDP-α-MSH promotes significant neurogenesis and cognitive recovery in these mice, primarily through the activation of melanocortin MC4 receptors. This groundbreaking discovery highlights the potential of melanocortin MC4 receptor agonists like NDP-α-MSH as a novel approach to treat Alzheimer’s disease. By stimulating intense neurogenesis and facilitating cognitive restoration, NDP-α-MSH treatment points towards a promising direction for developing effective therapies against the neurodegenerative processes and cognitive impairments associated with AD, offering new hope for patients and advancing our understanding of potential therapeutic targets within the disease’s complex pathology.

Read the full article https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1044743115000858
Giuliani D, Bitto A, Galantucci M, Zaffe D, Ottani A, Irrera N, Neri L, Cavallini GM, Altavilla D, Botticelli AR, Squadrito F, Guarini S. Melanocortins protect against progression of Alzheimer’s disease in triple-transgenic mice by targeting multiple pathophysiological pathways. Neurobiol Aging. 2014 Mar;35(3):537-47. doi: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2013.08.030. Epub 2013 Oct 1. PMID: 24094579.

Melanocortins protect against progression of Alzheimer’s disease in triple-transgenic mice by targeting multiple pathophysiological pathways

The study by Giuliani D, Bitto A, Galantucci M, Zaffe D, Ottani A, Irrera N, Neri L, Cavallini GM, Altavilla D, Botticelli AR, Squadrito F, Guarini S, published in Neurobiology of Aging in March 2014, investigates the protective effects of melanocortins on the progression of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) in triple-transgenic mice, a model that closely mimics the human condition. The findings demonstrate that melanocortins can significantly hinder AD progression by simultaneously targeting multiple pathophysiological pathways involved in the disease, including amyloid-beta deposition, tau protein hyperphosphorylation, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress. This multi-targeted approach not only highlights the complexity of Alzheimer’s disease but also underscores the potential of melanocortins as a promising therapeutic strategy for AD. By affecting various fundamental aspects of AD pathology, melanocortins offer a comprehensive therapeutic potential that could more effectively manage or slow down the disease’s progression, offering new hope for treatments that can address the multifaceted nature of Alzheimer’s disease.

Read the full article https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0197458013003758
Ramírez D, Saba J, Carniglia L, Durand D, Lasaga M, Caruso C. Melanocortin 4 receptor activates ERK-cFos pathway to increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in rat astrocytes and hypothalamus. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2015 Aug 15;411:28-37. doi: 10.1016/j.mce.2015.04.008. Epub 2015 Apr 16. PMID: 25892444.

Melanocortin 4 receptor activates ERK-cFos pathway to increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in rat astrocytes and hypothalamus

The study by Ramírez D, Saba J, Carniglia L, Durand D, Lasaga M, Caruso C, published in Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology in August 2015, explores the activation of the ERK-cFos pathway by the melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) and its role in increasing the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in rat astrocytes and the hypothalamus. This research provides significant insights into the molecular mechanisms through which MC4R influences neurotrophic support in the brain, particularly through the modulation of BDNF, a critical factor for neuronal survival, differentiation, and plasticity. The activation of the ERK-cFos pathway by MC4R signaling highlights a novel aspect of how neuroendocrine regulation can impact neuroplasticity and neuronal health. By demonstrating the capacity of MC4R to enhance BDNF expression, this study suggests potential therapeutic avenues for treating neurological disorders where BDNF expression is compromised, offering new perspectives on the role of melanocortin signaling in brain health and disease.

Read the full article https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030372071500194X
Mykicki N, Herrmann AM, Schwab N, Deenen R, Sparwasser T, Limmer A, Wachsmuth L, Klotz L, Köhrer K, Faber C, Wiendl H, Luger TA, Meuth SG, Loser K. Melanocortin-1 receptor activation is neuroprotective in mouse models of neuroinflammatory disease. Sci Transl Med. 2016 Oct 26;8(362):362ra146. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aaf8732. PMID: 27797962.

Melanocortin-1 receptor activation is neuroprotective in mouse models of neuroinflammatory disease

The study by Mykicki N, Herrmann AM, Schwab N, Deenen R, Sparwasser T, Limmer A, Wachsmuth L, Klotz L, Köhrer K, Faber C, Wiendl H, Luger TA, Meuth SG, Loser K, published in Science Translational Medicine in October 2016, investigates the neuroprotective effects of melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) activation in mouse models of neuroinflammatory disease. This research demonstrates that activating MC1R can significantly mitigate the effects of neuroinflammatory conditions, highlighting a potential therapeutic role for MC1R agonists in treating neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases. The study provides compelling evidence that MC1R activation leads to a reduction in neuroinflammation, preservation of neuronal function, and overall neuroprotection in models of multiple sclerosis (MS) and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a common model for MS research. These findings suggest that MC1R not only plays a critical role in the skin’s response to UV radiation but also serves as an important modulator of immune responses in the central nervous system, offering new avenues for the development of treatments for neuroinflammatory disorders.

Read the full article https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/scitranslmed.aaf8732
Giuliani D, Ottani A, Minutoli L, Stefano VD, Galantucci M, Bitto A, Zaffe D, Altavilla D, Botticelli AR, Squadrito F, Guarini S. Functional recovery after delayed treatment of ischemic stroke with melanocortins is associated with overexpression of the activity-dependent gene Zif268. Brain Behav Immun. 2009 Aug;23(6):844-50. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2009.03.009. Epub 2009 Apr 5. PMID: 19345727.

Functional recovery after delayed treatment of ischemic stroke with melanocortins is associated with overexpression of the activity-dependent gene Zif268

The study by Giuliani D, Ottani A, Minutoli L, Stefano VD, Galantucci M, Bitto A, Zaffe D, Altavilla D, Botticelli AR, Squadrito F, Guarini S, published in Brain, Behavior, and Immunity in August 2009, examines the effects of delayed treatment with melanocortins on functional recovery after ischemic stroke. The research highlights that administering melanocortins after the onset of stroke can significantly enhance functional recovery. This improvement is associated with the overexpression of Zif268, an activity-dependent gene involved in neuronal plasticity and recovery processes. The findings suggest that melanocortins not only have neuroprotective properties but also promote the brain’s intrinsic healing mechanisms, potentially by enhancing synaptic plasticity and neural repair pathways. This study provides valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the recovery from ischemic stroke and suggests a promising therapeutic role for melanocortins in treating stroke and possibly other neurological conditions by targeting post-stroke neuronal recovery processes.

Read the full article https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0889159109001020
An JJ, Rhee Y, Kim SH, Kim DM, Han DH, Hwang JH, Jin YJ, Cha BS, Baik JH, Lee WT, Lim SK. Peripheral effect of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone on fatty acid oxidation in skeletal muscle. J Biol Chem. 2007 Feb 2;282(5):2862-70. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M603454200. Epub 2006 Nov 24. PMID: 17127674.

Peripheral effect of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone on fatty acid oxidation in skeletal muscle

The study by An JJ, Rhee Y, Kim SH, Kim DM, Han DH, Hwang JH, Jin YJ, Cha BS, Baik JH, Lee WT, Lim SK, published in the Journal of Biological Chemistry in February 2007, investigates the peripheral effects of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) on fatty acid oxidation in skeletal muscle. This research reveals that α-MSH plays a significant role in promoting fatty acid oxidation outside of its well-known effects on melanogenesis and appetite regulation. The study demonstrates that α-MSH stimulates fatty acid oxidation in skeletal muscle by activating the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway, a critical regulator of cellular energy homeostasis. These findings suggest a novel role for α-MSH in metabolic regulation, highlighting its potential as a target for therapies aimed at improving metabolic health and treating conditions associated with impaired fatty acid oxidation, such as obesity and type 2 diabetes. The study provides important insights into the systemic effects of α-MSH and its potential benefits beyond its central actions on appetite and energy balance.

Read the full article https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)38371-6/abstract
Møller CL, Raun K, Jacobsen ML, Pedersen TÅ, Holst B, Conde-Frieboes KW, Wulff BS. Characterization of murine melanocortin receptors mediating adipocyte lipolysis and examination of signalling pathways involved. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2011 Jul 20;341(1-2):9-17. doi: 10.1016/j.mce.2011.03.010. Epub 2011 May 17. PMID: 21616121.

Characterization of murine melanocortin receptors mediating adipocyte lipolysis and examination of signalling pathways involved

The study by Møller CL, Raun K, Jacobsen ML, Pedersen TÅ, Holst B, Conde-Frieboes KW, Wulff BS, published in Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology in July 2011, focuses on the characterization of murine melanocortin receptors (MCRs) involved in mediating adipocyte lipolysis and the investigation of the signaling pathways activated by these receptors. The research identifies specific melanocortin receptors that are responsible for stimulating lipolysis in mouse adipocytes, providing evidence for the role of melanocortin signaling in the regulation of fat metabolism. Moreover, the study delves into the molecular mechanisms underlying this process, examining the involvement of various signaling pathways such as cAMP, PKA, and ERK1/2. The findings contribute to a better understanding of how melanocortin receptors influence adipose tissue function and offer insights into potential targets for obesity and metabolic disorder treatments. By elucidating the complex interactions between MCRs and adipocyte lipolysis, this research paves the way for developing novel therapeutic strategies aimed at enhancing lipid metabolism and combating obesity.

Read the full article https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0303720711001699

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